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\par
\par }\pard \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri0\sl320\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs32 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs32\insrsid5903944\charrsid11865193 Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb1160\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5903944 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid16460491
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5903944\charrsid5903944 "And you're not even dead yet!" One of my graduate students sees the opportunity
to collect a set of my essays as an honor that is usually accorded to those who have left the living. I was stopped cold (but not dead) by this comment. It is true that the honor this volume repre\-
sents is exceptional, but I also hope that it does not mean that my work is over. I do not feel that I am done, that I can seek early retire\-
ment to my farm and spend the time with my family and friends that is so unavailable during my academic life. Such musings may or may not lead to life-changing revelations, a
nd for me they do not. Indeed, they cause me to do what I usually do. I thought about the particularities of the people I have worked with over the years, the writing I do, and what I am currently doing and pursuing. I am not dead; I am particular.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5903944 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5903944\charrsid5903944 What first attracted me to ethnography was its dedication to under\-
standing people and situations in emic terms. It seemed to promise a respect toward people that the dominant positivism in sociology did not allow. As we well know now, this promise is at best partial. Re\-
spect is on our terms, not on theirs. We invade everyday life and use people's lives to render interpretations and critiques important to the ethnographer's world. In the twenty years of research and writing that this volume spans, I have experime
nted with various ways of ad\-dressing this partiality. My early ethnographic writings on school de\-segregation and race (see Part}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5903944\charrsid5903944 2)}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5903944\charrsid5903944 were written against the views of whites and policy makers. My more recent writings on race and edu\-cation continue to do t
his. Yet, I also write against prevalent views in the academy and, finally, against myself.
\par The particular for me includes not just the others I create when I write an ethnographic account but the disciplinary, policy, and self
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid5903944\charrsid5903944 \page }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid5512395 \tab \tab \tab 2}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193
\par }\pard \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid5512395\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5903944 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 understandings that are particular to my everyday life as an ethnographer in education. The writings in Part}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
1}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 reflect my conscious attempt to think carefully about how ethnographers construct their work. These essays address the various genres of qualitative resea
rch in education (ethnography, action or teacher research, evaluation, and policy re\-
search) and my attempts to rehumanize ethnographic methods. While technique is important to me, I am writing against the view that our methods somehow raise our enterprise
to a special form of human endeavor. To my way of thinking, ethnography is simply particular forms of the everyday realms of politics, morality, and understanding. That I do not write much about technique reflects my concern that we need to expose what e
thnographers do in private as well as in public.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi200\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16460491 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
Let me use the artwork on the cover of this book to demonstrate what particularity can offer. The painting from which the cover is copied was done by Julie Longhill, an artist in Cleveland, Ohio. Look\-ing clo
sely, we see two elderly people at a wall. The man is looking over the wall while the woman holds a line that is dropped over the side of the wall. In the original painting, the leaves would tell us it is the peak of fall, when leaf colors are their brigh
t
est. We can try to infer from the scene what is going on. We could correctly conclude the woman is fishing and the man gazing over the water. We might even conclude from our own point of view that it is a nice day for fishing. Indeed, she is lightly dress
e
d for fall, and the weather seems clear. We may also note an incongruity with our usual views of fishing. She is fishing without a pole. Why is she fishing and he watching? I would also ask questions about gender and power in this scene. I could go on, bu
t my point here is to demonstrate one meaning of particularity. It refers to the close examination of a scene and grounded inferences about the scene.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
There are other meanings of particularity that this painting allows. Interviewing the artist, I learn that
the couple is married and both are originally from Italy. The artist asked if she could paint them and was given permission. Julie set up her easel and canvas and began to sketch on the canvas. In turn, the woman altered her stance and her move\-
ments. She "posed" for her portrait. The man changed his actions less but also restricted himself into a "pose."
\par Julie took some time to rough in the painting and thanked the couple, who broke their pose to come see what Julie had drawn. They were subdued but closely examined the art work. Julie recalls her feel\-ings: "It was intimate}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 . . .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 and beautiful}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 . . .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 and reflective." The
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li40\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin40\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar
\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 3}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 last term had multiple connotations for Julie. The couple seemed re\-flective; the
scene caused Julie to be reflective about the couple, the day, and her art; and finally the fall colors were reflected in the water. Again, more detail can be given, but the point is that another meaning of particularity is the close examination of how th
e scene got recorded. Julie loved painting the scene, and loves this painting. This is not a neutral recording but a passionate, if quiescent, rendering of the artist's experience.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5512395 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 Julie did not tell me what she changed from the scene to make the painting,
but I know from her other paintings that she regularly changes details to give a more accurate sense of the scene. Like an ethnographer, she translates the scene so that it will be better understood by an imagined audience. She points to the power of thos
e who inscribe others.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395
This painting also can give another sense of particularity. There is a context to Julie's being there to inscribe the scene. First, the scene is Cleveland's Metroparks. Cleveland is a city proud of its ethnic heri\-
tages, a city where people such as this couple identify themselves by the country of their origin or the origin of their families. Second, Julie moved to Cleveland because it seemed to offer a conducive climate for an artist, stemming from a history of ph
i
lanthropy fueled by the exploitive profits of now defunct heavy industry. Third, Julie lives next to the Metroparks and often uses them as both scene and inspiration for her art. Thus, this scene was incidental, but not accidental. It is the product of Ju
lie's work patterns, the physical environment surround\-ing her, and the nature and history of the city itself. The economic reality of being an artist also means the Metroparks are a cheap source of inspiration.
\par It is also important to understand the contex
t to the art appearing on the cover of this volume. The particularities involved may not be the same that put an ethnography into a publication, but they remind us to attend to an even wider context. Julie is my sister-in-law, and I have admired this pain
ting for some time. I was negotiating this vol\-
ume at the American Educational Studies Association meetings in Cleveland, and part of that discussion briefly touched on the cover design. That evening, Julie agreed I could use this painting for the cover. I saw it as a way to do what I have just done
\emdash explore how a focus on particularities pushes an ethnographer to consider the de\-tails of the entire ethnographic process, not just the details of the scene being studied. I used what little power I had to pull this off, and
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193 4\tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
Joe Kincheloe understood the importance of this to me. Clearly, par\-ticularities enable a different sense of ethnography.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Abu-Lughod}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1991,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 149)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 taught me the fuller meaning of "eth\-nographies of the
particular." In her view, ethnographies of the par\-ticular constitute "writing against culture" in which "Culture is the essential tool for making other" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 143).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par Abu-Lughod's apt critiques of the well-intended attempts to move toward a view of cultural critique by Marcus and Fischer}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1986)}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 and Clifford and Marcus}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1986)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 reveal that a focus on the particular is one strategy to use to work against ethnography's historical relationships of power. For me, this means increasingly particularistic accounts of th
e production of ethnographic accounts as well as the "refusing to generalize" Abu-Lughod (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 153)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 advocates. In this way, I can write not only against culture but against myself.
\par In my life, ethnography has become a quest to construct an identity for mysel
f. I started this quest as a blue-collar kid growing up with a large group of peers who eventually became a small-town gang. The gang gave me both a sense of self and clear evidence of protection and support. These were arrayed against others who would ch
allenge us or who were simply not us. In college I learned more than academ\-ics. I found a new gang who let me locate my identity in issues and peoples to whom I was not directly and personally attached. Radical\-
ism in graduate school deepened my commitments and gave them intellectual depth.
\par However, I was only to have those ideals brought into question as I worked with African Americans in Memphis during school desegrega\-tion. As a young sociology professor, I had not considered that being in favor of an ab
stract leftist view would put me into conflict with people struggling for equality. They brought me back to the lessons of the gang of my youth\emdash
trust comes from committing to particular people and situations, not from one's abstract political leanings. The twist, of course, was that while the gang of my youth was defined by the given similarities of neighborhood, working-class lifestyles, trouble
\-some and broken families, race, and gender, African Americans taught me that similarities can be constructed out of shared struggles.
\par I had learned to use my ethnographic research on school desegre\-gation not only to advance a struggle for equality and to work against racism, but to write against myself. My political beliefs did not dra\-matically change, but I learn
ed that the abstract did not have much meaning to those whose lives were jeopardized by their struggles against
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\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193 I}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 ntroduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193 \tab \tab \tab 5}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
injustice. In a commitment to particular people, struggles, and situa\-tions, my life had meaning to, and with, others. Ethnography became more than a methodology. It is my pedagogy to allow writing against myself.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
I also came to understand research and publication as more than efforts to advance a discipline, career, or theory. In those days, eth\-nography was in ill-repute in sociology and in education. It was not scientific or even objective. For ma}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5512395 ny of my generation of ethnogra}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
phers, the quest was to gain legitimacy for the method and for the work of valuing particular peoples and their beliefs. In this way, re\-
search was a moral endeavor, a way to write against dominant cultural beliefs and political practices. The lessons of the particular led me to what we now would term a postmodern struggle\emdash how to end domi\-
nance without inscribing new grand narratives, new hegemonies. Po\-litically, it is clear that ethnography is yet to be successful in this. We see quantitative researchers now complaining of the "hegemony of narrative" (Cizek,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 1995).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 My explanation for this is that in the "para\-digm wars" we have inscribed
ethnography as primarily a research methodology and, in doing so, replicated the professionalization of research that Mills}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1959)}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 so aptly critiqued. As I recently put it:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li360\ri200\sb180\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin360\itap0\pararsid5512395 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395
Once critiqued as overly subjective, qualitative research is now professionalizing subjectivity. We know that professions use exclusion to increase status, dis\-tancing themselves from the people they are to serve. Let us}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 ...}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395
undercut the tendencies to objectify, reify, legitimate, and professionalize qualitative research (Noblit,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 1995,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 404).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
One way we can avoid reinscribing dominance in society and in research is by embracing gerunds over nouns. Gerunds put you in action, in the particular, and in abeyance. Nouns make something, give it existence and definiteness. In life and in soci
al thought, the particular teaches us that words and deeds take on new meaning when they are reified. Indeed, it is on reifications that people build fortifica\-
tions. I also understand the contradictions this creates for all of us, including myself in this book. As Berger and Luckmann}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1967)}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 have taught us, humans make social constructions and reifications essential to such constructions. For me, the quest is to try to remember that }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\i\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 we }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 made the reifications and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 we}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 can change them. In my life, ethnography's pushing me into the particular allows me to remind myself and others of the dangers of knowing: to remind myself that when I reify, I fortify.
\par \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li40\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin40\itap0\pararsid11865193 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193 6\tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8721315 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 The works in this volume show that I had to learn this lesson re\-
peatedly, and learn to actively dereify, to question, to be uncertain. Since you will see in the subsequent chapters where I have come from, I want to show you where I am going. As I think th
is volume may be best used in a second course on qualitative research methods,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid8721315 I}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 will focus on reading and writing ethnographies in this introduction. These are the gerunds\emdash reading and writing
\emdash that I am now considering in earnest. I would also recommend Atkinson's book}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1992)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
on reading and writing ethnography. He and I share a set of concerns. I think my understanding of reading and writing, however, has a larger context, in a set of other gerunds that are my personal approach to ethnogra\-phy and education
: committing, working, and theorizing.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri0\sb320\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Committing}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
Ethnographic research, beyond anything else, involves committing. There are four commitments I wish to highlight: first to people, sec\-ond to understanding, third to learning, and fourth to advocating. Comm
itting to people is ultimately what this work is about. It is people who construct culture. It is people that we interview and observe, and it is people who create the documents that we peruse so assiduously. This means committing to people that we do not
always like. I recall during my desegregation ethnography one of the people I liked the least in the school was the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) instructor. But the ROTC instructor was someone who was doing some\-
thing very interesting. I had to c
ommit enough to get beyond my original distaste for what ROTC instructors represented to me. The ROTC instructors, in my mind, were people that represented the worst of the culture. They had been part of the Vietnam War, which I had actively opposed, and
p
art of demeaning many of the values that I thought were central to American life: democracy, freedom of expression, and peace. But in Crossover High School (pseudonym) the ROTC class was one of the few places where races were, actually, being treated equa
lly.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
I learned much by watching through my distaste and by trying to understand. There was a formal equality in ROTC classes. It was the formal equality of the armed forces. People of equal rank were treated equally no matter what. Respect would be shown. I
n this class, stu\-dents would rotate through leadership roles regardless of race. This was something particularly important to the working-class African-American and white young men in the high school. ROTC was one of
\par \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 7}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8721315 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 the places where the formal nature of school could get beyond the dreadful politics of race taking place in the community and elsewhere in the school. There were other places, primarily band, chorus\emdash
places that were less "academic." Yet the point is that I had to learn to com\-mit to someone I disliked, to commit to understanding what he was about in order to learn an important lesson about something I valued:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid8721315 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 desegregation.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi260\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 I have also committed to people that I liked, people who I thought
were doing the right thing, only to learn that in the end what I had thought initially was right was really misguided or what I had thought was particularly moral was much more seedy than I would have imag\-
ined. Nonetheless, these incidences have taught me
that ultimately ethnographers have to commit to people if we are going to do this work. We have to commit to people if we are going to understand what is going on in the worlds in which we live. We have to commit to people if we are going to try to chang
e our culture.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi260\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5512395 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395
The second commitment is to understanding. Understanding is not easily wrought through research. In positivistic research, it almost seems as though procedure gets in the way of understanding. The formalized research methodology creates obsta
cles to our having insight. In eth\-
nographic research, we pride ourselves on pursuing understanding. Yet, as we proceed to do our research, there are many things that can get in the way of our actual understanding of what people are doing. There is the ins
ecurity about method, "Did I ask the interview ques\-tion correctly?" "Have I been appropriate in how I observed?" Even the necessary prior planning can sometimes make us focus more on our procedure than on what people are saying\emdash
to focus on us rather than on the particulars of the other people's lives. Another impedi\-
ment to understanding in ethnographic research is the values that we ourselves hold. If we do not work against ourselves, work against our values and identities, then they always get in the way of our under\-
standing someone else's point of view. Understanding is also thwarted by our commitments to our careers, to our theories, to our past re\-search, and to our past writings (Van Galen}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 &}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 Eaker,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 1995).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 We try to make our careers build by moving fr
om one study to another, citing ourselves again and again to establish a line of research for which we are know}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid5512395\charrsid5512395 n. As a result, we track our ow}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395
n cultural construction of the lives of others more than we emically understand those lives. It is also true that theory may be an impediment to understanding others. Theory is itself a social construction through which we filter our understand\-
ing of someone else's life. Yet the social theories that we employ}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid5512395 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid5512395 were}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid5512395
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5512395
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid8721315\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\sbknone\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar
\s15\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posx10820\posy100\absh140\absw220\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 In
\par }\pard \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid5512395\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5512395\charrsid5903944 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5512395 8
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb80\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 created by people who live rather different lives from those we are trying to understand. It is our commitment to others' values, the theo\-
rists' in this case, that makes it difficult to understand the people with whom we are working.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 Another commitment th
at we must make is to learning. The ethnographer is forever a student. I tell my students that if you finish a study where you started, you are subject to the worst criticism that is possible in our genre of research\emdash
you have learned nothing: nothing that would change the way you started; nothing that would alter the way you originally conceived of your study; nothing that would change the trajectory of your methodology. The student that is the }{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid5512395\charrsid12401288 ethnographer}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 must forever be willing to learn, must expect to l
earn, and must expect, therefore, to be forever ignorant. Ethnographic learning is at best conditional. Some of my students complain that asking me a question gets an answer that almost always has the form "It depends." While I hope I do not always answer
every question in this form, whatever w}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid5512395\charrsid12401288 is}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 dom }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid5512395\charrsid12401288 I }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 have gamed }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid5512395\charrsid12401288 f}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 rom others tells me it does depend. It depends on conditions, on the scene, on the people you are with, on what you want to try to achieve, on how you understand the problem, and so on. The wisdom
that can come from being forever a student is the wisdom of conditional understanding, and the realization that any understanding is partial.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5512395 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
Finally, I think we must commit to being an advocate. When you understand people, when you have committed to them,
and when you have learned from them, you advocate for them. This does not mean that you will be uncritical, nor does it mean that you will advocate in the ways they necessarily would prefer you to advocate for them. For, you are not they. You can become
similar in the struggle to under\-
stand, but you will never be they. Advocating may come in various forms. It may come in the form of direct political action. An injustice so incenses us that we begin to try to effect political change, to alter the injustice
we have seen. Often, however, it will come in more subtle forms, where}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid5512395\charrsid12401288 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
advocating means trying to promote their world view as reasonable. Advocating may also take the form of simply putting people's views into play. I often think the role of writing for publica\-
tion is not so much to change the way others work but to create a way for readers to realize that their perspective is not the only one. The commitment to documenting people's lives advocates the form, the meaning, and the value of their lives. When
we ignore this, we are advocating for the dominant world view.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\sbknone\linex0\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar
\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 9}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Commi
tting, however, does not have to be reciprocal. I have been fired for doing fieldwork that I thought was competent and accurate. By representing the views of teachers, I taught school administrators there was resistance to their efforts. The administrator
s decided sup\-pression of our study was the first step needed. Being fired, of course, is an ignoble result of fieldwork. Yet it does signify to me that commit\-
ting to be with others does not always solve any moral problems. Rather it generates moral proble
ms. We all know that field-workers are not neutral influences on the field. So committing is a dangerous act. It invites relationships that are wonderful and rewarding. It invites relationships that thwart, relationships that hurt you, and relation\-
ships that leave you wondering why you had bothered to commit anyway.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid12401288\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri0\sb320\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Working}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
One of my former students, Brian McCadden, was team-teaching a fieldwork class with me one night. I had been talking about working-class culture and how in some working-class cultures
the value of hard work was attached to achievement: If one worked hard enough, achieve\-
ment would naturally follow. The class took a break and I left the room. Brian taught next, and he was explaining something about the projects they would be working on w
hen I returned. I walked into the room as he was saying "You'll find that George values hard work." It is true that in the culture in which I was raised, hard work is largely equivalent to achievement. It is both the mechanism and the end re\-
sult of your e
fforts. Working, for me, in the context of ethnographic research, means more than hard work. Working means attending to all the details of things that need to be done in order for you to know and for people to believe that you are sincere in coming to kno
w
about their lives. Part of working is technique. While I teach a lot of research technique, I do not care about technique in the end. For me, it is important-for novice ethnographers to know the technical aspects of how to interview, how to observe, etc.
But through working, they should learn how to go beyond the technical: how to eschew method in the pursuit of understanding\emdash how to alter what seems to be good practice for what seems to be good reasoning.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Working, for me, is a relationship. I always think
of my studies as being my working with others. Working with them is a way of demon\-strating my concern for their lives. I attend to them earnestly. I pay}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sl281\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15875000 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid15875000
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid15875000\charrsid15875000 10\tab \tab \tab Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid15875000
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl281\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15875000 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid15875000\charrsid14951604
attention. I laugh. I cry. I am as emotional as they are. I am by nature gregarious and probably more than a bit obnoxious. All the interac\-
tional details of fieldwork are energizing and engaging for me. Yet, as I tell my students, the thing that I notice most when I am working is the loneliness. Ultimately, the pursuit of understanding
is a lonely task. The people you are working with usually understand what they are doing in taken-for-granted ways. Only you are trying to understand something that you do not understand. It is only you that wants to get beyond the taken-for-granteds. Eve
n research techniques promote lone\-liness: the pursuit of a good interview, listening to others, and asking questions to keep them talking. They separate you even as you use them to get inside someone's perspective.
\par Working also means being with other resea
rchers. I construct the ethnographic endeavor as a team enterprise. It is always better to have more than one ethnographer at work. First, another ethnographer allows a different perspective, a different way of viewing. Some\-
one may tell him or her something different, or he or she may under\-stand in a different way the same thing told to both of us. So working, for me, involves not only the people whose culture you wish to under\-
stand, but someone who is in pursuit of understanding that culture with you. It means that you must maintain relationships with your coresearchers in ways that make them wish to continue the ethno\-
graphic enterprise. For some people there are different rewards for ethnography. Some find it tedious work and need downtime away from yo
u. Some find it exhilarating and want to spend a lot of time with their coresearchers talking about it, understanding it, etc. The successful ethnographer who works with teams must learn to recog\-
nize the different ways people need to be with one another as coresearchers.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi245\li0\ri0\sl281\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15875000 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid15875000\charrsid14951604
For me, the primary rule of field etiquette is respect. It is important to me to convey to people that I respect their lives. I must respect my coresearchers too. Actually, it is harder for me to respect a coresearcher than a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid15875000\charrsid14951604 perso}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid15875000 n whose life is very different from mine. It is probably an}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid15875000\charrsid14951604 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid15875000\charrsid14951604 irony of my work, but I have a love-hate relationship with the acad\-
emy. Academics are trained to be solitary experts. When I am working in the field, the differences between coresearchers are always appar\-ent to me. I have to work against myself continuously to truly under\-
stand what others see in a scene and to respect it as equal to what I see in a scene.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \fi270\li0\ri0\sl281\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15875000 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid15875000\charrsid14951604
Finally, working is a commitment to working through. On the one hand, you have to work through an entire study. One has to under-}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar
\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12401288 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 11}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\sl281\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15875000 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 stand everything one can about the work and the scene that is being studied. Yet working through for me means carrying out the human commitments that you began with. One
of the rules of thumb that I work with is that the people with whom I am studying deserve the first product. When I am working, I must find a way to prepare what they want before I prepare what I want out of the study. I have created a celebratory history
of a school, a play for the schoolchildren to per\-form about the school, a videotape about educational value shown in the churches, and an oral storytelling that dramatizes what a group has been through.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 Only after completing these products am I free to wr
ite my articles and book. In my life, there is a half-life to ethnographic commitment. There is a point at which people no longer care to have you around. For my work, a project seems to have a three- or four-year duration. By the end of the project, ever
y
one is ready for it to come to an end. Yet I am less ready than the others. For me, the loneliness of being the field-worker is only matched by the loneliness of walking away. I feel as though the committing I have done is being negated. I am not sure oth
e
rs view it this way. They probably view their commitment to any project as being temporal and limited. It is I who want a larger commitment. It is my needs and wants that make working through such a sad endeavor. I, of course, do not simply walk away at t
h
e end. I try to make sure there are ways that we can be together: subsequent phone calls, an occasional letter, stopping by. My relationship with the people I work with does not end abruptly. It still is available should anyone wish to reactivate it. I wo
u
ld like to say I remain friends with the people I work with, but of course that is not always the case. Many of them are friends, and we have found a profound respect for each other. It is also true that some people found the research an imposing situatio
n, found my presence disrupting, or simply did not like me. These situations make me even lonelier.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid12401288\charrsid12401288
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri0\sb340\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 Theorizing}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb140\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
I spend a lot of time reading social theory. For me it is important to understand how my colleagues view the world and how that view changes over time. I want to understand the interplay of social theory and history, to understand how ideas are grounded i
n the conditions of the theorists' lives. Theory for me is historicism. Theory is not truth. Rather theory represents a set of ideas that seem to make sense to people in a specific historical context. What appears to be grand}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid6440260 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar
\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posnegx-20\posy540\absh10392\absw7837\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6440260 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid6440260\charrsid6440260 theory is par
ticularistic in its own way. Theory is no more special a product than people's own beliefs about their own lives. I use an anal\-
ogy that not all of my colleagues like. I liken theory to pottery. Pottery can be grand and elegant, or it can be simple and rou
gh. Pottery can be finished, glazed, and colorful, or it can be unfinished and drab, Pottery can be beautiful, a supreme expression of artistic ability, or it can be primarily functional. But ultimately, pottery is made by hu\-
mans and will ultimately crack
, break, and dissolve back to dust. Theory is just like pottery. Like pottery, it can be elegant or glazed or finished or artistic. Like pottery, it can be drab, functional, and broken. Theory is what is produced by humans who call themselves theorists. T
his is not to devalue theory but to place it in its particular historical and social context. As a result, theory is something to be studied, to be watched, to be ethnographically understood.
\par More important to me is theorizing. Theorizing is what I do as part of my work, as I think through what people have told me and think of what questions to ask next. Theorizing is thinking through the conclu\-
sions I draw from different sets of information so that}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid6440260\charrsid6440260 1}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid6440260\charrsid6440260
may try to understand how things go together or do not.
Theorizing is a process of trying out ideas. I prefer emic ideas: Words that the people use to characterize their own lives. I search assiduously through my field notes, through their documents, and through their lives for metaphors, phrases, and tropes.
While people use the emic terms in a matter-of-fact way, such terms give me purchase on the uniqueness and the wonder of their lives.
\par Sometimes people's speech does not come in phrases, themes, or metaphors that allow me to understand it so that I can commu
nicate it well to another audience. I often find it necessary to turn to social thought, to the emic terms of theorists, as a way to communicate the particular to my colleagues. Sometimes I have to make up my own terms. These situations worry me even more
.
They require me to assume that I understand what is going on in ways that other people do not. I find this hard to believe. The ethnographer may lay bare the reifications of everyday life. Yet I am always leery when I make up the metaphors that character
ize someone else's way of life.
\par My students in qualitative methods classes like the idea of meta\-phors. They run the common ones: circuses, carnivals, and the like. Thankfully, teaching students and seeing them rush to their own meta\-phors is a good therapy
for me. It reminds me of how I am likely to proceed when I do not understand someone's life. It forces me to re\-search emic metaphors once again.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb140\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid6440260 12\tab \tab \tab Introduction
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid6440260\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193 \tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 13}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 Theorizing is also a connective endeavor. For me, the unique con\-tribution of ethnographic research is showing how things are con\-nected to other things. Qualitative researchers can specify the mecha\-
nisms between proceeding events and following events. They can show how multiple prospectives interact and play out. This kind of theoriz\-ing is the ultimate ethnographic work. It is making sense of lived expe\-riences.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri0\sb300\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 Reading}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li160\ri200\sb140\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin160\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 Books are to be called for, and supplied, on the assumption that the process of r
eading is not half-sleep, but, in the highest sense, an exercise, a gymnast's struggle; that the reader is to do something for himself, must be on the alert, must himself or herself construct indeed the poem, argument, history, meta\-physical essay
\emdash the text
furnishing the hints, the clue, the start of framework. Not the book needs so much to be the complete thing, but the reader of the book does. That were to make a nation of supple and athletic minds, well-trained, intuitive, used to depend on themselves,
and not a few coteries of writers. (Walt Whitman,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 1892)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sb160\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
Educational ethnography is an arena of discovery and controversy. The closer we look at schools, the more we discover our own perspec\-tives. As Peshkin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 (1988)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 recounts, the discovery of our own subjectiv\-
ity gives us new insights into that which we arc studying. This is why we do this kind of research. We want to know them and we want them to know us. This connects us to human life in ways denied us in other modes of research. Perhaps because our resear
ch is so personal, we have had a methodological fetish. We have concentrated so much on }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 how we}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 know that we have largely forgotten our purpose. Our pur\-pose, to paraphrase Geertz}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 (1973, 1988),}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 is to enlarge the human discourse. This requires us not only to get our "interpretations of interpretations" (Geertz,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 1973)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
straight, but to have others participate in the act of interpretation. To foster human discourse, we must get people to read our accounts and to make interpretations of their own. Reading an inte
rpretive account is not like reading a positivistic study. It requires that the reader participate in making sense of the account. Reading ethnography is not a passive activity. It is a social construc\-
tion involving the reader, the ethnographer's account, and the text the reader evokes.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288 A Methodological Fetish}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid12401288
It is a source of amazement to anthropologists and sociologists that fieldwork, in its application in education, has resulted in a plethora of
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2440\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 14}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \tab Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12401288 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 works on methodology.
In my own discipline of sociology, fieldwork is more a craft (and often denigrated as such) than a set of techniques and methods, and this is more true in anthropology. Nonetheless, there has emerged an extensive literature on ethnographic and quali\-
tative research methods in education. Indeed, we have seen attempts to translate what we do i}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid12401288\charrsid6187465 n terms of positivists}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 . Probably the most stark of these attempts involves concepts of reliability and valid\-ity (e.g. Goetz}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 &}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 LeCompte,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1984;}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Kirk}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 &}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Miller,}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1985).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
It is, of course, not wrong to try to be understood by those who do not share our view of research, but it is problematic to alter our discourse to do so.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12401288 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 There are those who are aware of the distortion that the fetish brings. Wolcott
}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1980,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 56)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 has argued:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li320\ri200\sb180\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin320\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
One could do a participant-observer study from now to doomsday and never come up with a sliver of ethnography.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 . . .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 We are fast losing sight of the fact that the essential ethnographic contribution i}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid12401288\charrsid6187465 s interpretive rather that meth}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 odological.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi200\li0\ri0\sb140\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6187465 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
The point is that research techniques and methods in qualitative research are incidental to the central act of interpretation. We employ them so that we can make sense of some social scene, but they have no significance independent of the interpretation a
nd the context in which they are used.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi200\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6187465 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
The more recent aspect of the fetish, and I see this as a sign of the demise of the methodological fetish, is the focus on how to write eth\-nographic accounts. Becker}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1986),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Clifford and Marcus}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1986),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 and even Geertz}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1988)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
have tried to give us a new understanding of how one should write when the intent is to be interpretive. Brodkey (1987a, 1987b) has examined ethnographic, critical ethnographic, and mod\-ernistic writing. Van Maanen}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1988),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Richardson}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1990),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 and Wolcott }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1990)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
all offer good advice. The point of each of these authors is that the process of interpreting the meaning of social life and expressing it to others is likely to involve writing, and writing is not the mechanical act we are so often taught in
school. Writing is inextricably an act of making sense of some social and cultural scene.
\par The emphasis on writing I take as a positive indicator that we are transcending the methodological fetish, but I also see elements of it that continue the fetish. If
we learn to write in the "correct" way, then ethnography will automatically deliver what it promises. To be fair, each of the above authors is careful to avoid this type of pronounce-
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi200\li200\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin200\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj
\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193 \tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
15}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6187465 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid6187465\charrsid6187465 men}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 t. Yet the point of my argument is that readers can evoke what\-
ever meaning they see in the writing. There is no way to stop readers from evoking the methodological fetish if that is part of their thought pattern, and current training in educational research seems to prom\-ise this though
t pattern. Even worse, it is clear that we teach people to read educational research in terms of methods and techniques. Vierra and Pollock}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1988)}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 portray the reading of research, quantitative and qualitative, as simply involving the reader's understanding how research\-
ers do their work. Their reader is passive, trying to discern the author's words not the reader's own thoughts. What we need is an alternative way to think about reading educational research, especially ethno\-graphic research.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 There is a larg
er reason to be concerned about how people read our writing. Clearly, there is a crisis in social science. Marcus and Fischer}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1986)}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 depict a "crisis of representation" and a "loss of en\-compassing theory" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 71).}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 The popularity of ethnography in educa\-
tion is a response to this. However, it is also true that there is a crisis in meaning in the larger society. This seems to be related to the gradual withdrawal of intellectuals from the public discourse, an abandonment of the goal of ethnographic researc
h. As Jacoby}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1987,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p. ix) argues:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li200\ri200\sb180\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin200\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
Intellectuals who write with vigor and clarity may be as scarce as low rents in New York or San Francisco. Raised in city streets and cafes before the age of massive universities, the "last" generation of intellectuals wrote for the edu\-
cated reader. They have been supplanted by high-tech intellectuals, consult\-ants and professors\emdash anonymous souls, who may be competent, and more than competent, but who do not enrich public life. Younger intellectuals, whose lives have unfold
ed almost entirely on campuses, direct themselves to profes\-
sional colleagues but are inaccessible and unknown to others. This is the danger and the threat; the public culture relies on a dwindling band of older intellectuals who command the vernacular that is slipping out of reach of their successors.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
We hope that educational ethnography will be able to reestablish the public discourse that is being lost. This requires that we not only write and publish so that others have access to our work, but also that the "publics" are able to read what we write.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Participative Reading}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
Educators are all too imbued with the notions that expression involves a set of skills, and if we teach these skills and students learn them, then reading, writing, and mathematics will no longer be problematic.
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2480\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 16}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \tab Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
Yet each of these methods of expression involves more than skills. Each involves people employing skills to create expressions. Even if we are less than sure that reading is on par with writing and math\-
ematics, yet it is true that reading is a method of expression also. We take what is printed on a page and from it create a new understand\-ing. Reading is participative, not passive (Atkinson,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1992).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6187465 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 To some, what the reader is to express is the meaning the author intended. Mortimer Ad}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid6187465\charrsid6187465 l}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 er}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1940,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 124)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 exemplified this:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li200\ri200\sb180\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin200\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 The process of understanding can be further divided. To understand a book, you m
ust approach it, first, as a whole, having a unity and a structure of parts; and, second, in terms of its elements, its units of language and thought.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sb160\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 In literary criticism, New Criticism paralleled the approach that }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid6187465\charrsid6187465 Adler}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 was recommending. Brooks}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
(1974)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 characterizes New Criticism by its focus on the literary object itself\emdash its structure, the words in context of the whole work, its contextual unity\emdash
and on distinguishing literature from religion and morality. This approach, and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid6187465\charrsid6187465 Adler\rquote s}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
, has been soundly rebu
ked on a number of fronts. Many of these critics simply wish to express another way to look at the author's intention and execution in a work. One school of thought has attempted, however, to conceive of reading as a participative act. Pater}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1910,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p. viii) fore\-shadowed this when he wrote:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li200\ri200\sb180\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin200\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 What is this song or picture}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 ...}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
to me? What effect does it really produce on me? And if so, what sort or degree or pleasure? The answers to these questions are the original facts with which the aesthetic critic has to d
o; and, as in the study of light, of morals, of number, one must realize such primary data for one's self, or not at all.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
Pater foreshadowed reader-response criticism, but not entirely. His approach was not fully developed in the role the reader plays in evok\-ing meaning from a text. Rosenblatt}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1978)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 was one of the early pro\-
ponents of a more transactional understanding of reading. She argues that in much-writing and literary criticism the reader was seen as an "invisible eavesdropper" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 2).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 In her view
the reader is active. A piece of writing becomes a text only when it is read. An ethnographic account, viewed this way, is "a stimulus activating elements of the reader's past experience" and a blueprint, "a guide for selecting, re\-
jecting, and ordering of what is being called forth" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 11).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
It becomes a text only when the symbols (words, structures, etc.) are given mean\-ing by a reader.
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 17}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sb180\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Rosenblatt}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1978)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
distinguishes two types of reading: efferent and aesthetic. Efferent reading focuses on the concepts, ideas, and facts to be retained, and the actions to be performed as a result of reading some work. Aesthetic reading focuses on what happens during the
reading of the work; "the reader's attention is centered directly on what he is living through during his relationship with that particular text" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
25).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Clearly, aesthetic reading involves what ethnographers normally refer to as interpretation. Efferent reading is what positivists would see as more appropriate.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
To read ethnographies, one must be a participant in interpretation. It is not enough to read the "facts" and consider the evidence and methods before coming to some decision about the worthiness of
the text. Ethnographies are constructions designed to persuade (Geertz, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1988).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 However, the value of an account is not contained within the words, but within the reader's conversion of the account into an inter\-pretive text. The reader must be prepared to
make meaning as he or she reads, putting something into the account and doing something with it. While there may be few "rules" like those of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid6187465\charrsid6187465 Adler}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 to guide participative reading, it is possible to talk about how one might go about making sense of an ethnographic account.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 How to Read an Ethnography}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Stanley Fish}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1980,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p.}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 347)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 points out that in a text "[w]hat is notice\-
able has been made noticeable}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 ...}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
by an interpretive strategy." Given our methodological fetish in educational ethnography, we know more about how to analyze qualitative data than how to interpret it. In part this is because there is little that is mechanical to the process of inter\-
pretation. The process of interpretation is simply the making sense of a phenomenon. Merleau-Ponty}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1962)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 conceives of interpretation as discerning the "essence" of some phenomenon. Taylor}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1982)}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 views it as understanding the "sense" of things. Yet we should be clear that the sense or essence is not independent of the perceiver. It is difficult to distinguish the kn
ower from the known. Indeed, in reading an ethnography, I create a new web of significance (Geertz,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1973)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 around my own life, even as I come to understand the author's interpreta\-tions of the interpretations present in the school, classroom, or community.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
In a more direct sense, it is the reader who evokes a meaning from an account. This involves a process of thinking and comparing. As Rosenblatt}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
(1978,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 54)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 describes:
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar
\s15\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posx10680\posy60\absh140\absw400\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri200\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posnegx-20\posy0\absh10200\absw7957\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin200\lin0\itap0\pararsid5795560 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 18\tab \tab \tab Introduction
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li200\ri200\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posnegx-20\posy0\absh10200\absw7957\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin200\lin200\itap0\pararsid5795560 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 In the broadest terms, then, the basic paradigm of the reading process con\-
sists in the response to cues; the adoption of an efferent or aesthetic stance; the development of a tentative framework or guiding principle of organiza\-tion; the arousal of expectations that influence the selection and synthesis
of further responses; the fulfillment or reinforcement of expectations, or their frustration, sometimes leading to revision of the framework, and sometimes, if necessary, to re-reading; the arousal of further expectations; until, if all goes well, with t
he completed decoding of the text, the final synthesis or organization is achieved.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posnegx-20\posy0\absh10200\absw7957\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8721315 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 The reader is in an analogous position to the ethnographer. Geertz }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 (1988)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 argues that the writer's central issue is to create a connection between "being there" and "being h
ere," to somehow persuade the reader that the account being written is an accurate portrayal of what was witnessed. The reader is one more step removed, and has a more involved, though analogous, task. "Here" is the reader's perspective;}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid8721315 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 "there" is the writer's "here" and "there" in conjunction. The partici\-
pative reader may well decide that the conjunction is problematic, as did both Everhart (1985a, 1985b) and Cusick (1985a, 1985b) in their exchange of critiques. Each argued the other's
account of "there" (the school studied) was plausible, but that the other's interpretation was less so. This exchange also highlights that the participative reader is working on his or her own interpretation when reading another's. Everhart and Cusick wer
e each experiencing a frustration with the organizing framework of the other and, in the end, constructed a re\-jection of the other's while reinforcing her or his own.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posnegx-20\posy0\absh10200\absw7957\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5795560 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 Reading an educational ethnography can be seen as a successive situating of the work. I o
riginally situate it in selecting it to read. I then respond to the cues it gives me by situating it again and again and so on. In doing so, I (re)situate my own ideas and others to which I have been exposed. I impute meaning into the account, and into my
per\-spective. I critique my understanding and the understandings that oth\-ers have offered. In doing so, I critique my culture (Marcus}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 &}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 Fischer, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 1986).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560
\par The cues that sponsor situating are many. Rosenblatt}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 (1978,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 p.}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 54) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 argues that for the "aesthetic" read
er "while holding on to the sound and primary reference of the words, he must pay attention to the shimmering interplay of meanings, associations, feeling-tones." My own approach (Noblit}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 &}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 Hare,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 1988)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 is to focus on what I consider to be the metaphors or t
ropes that ethnographers use to interpret their accounts. I consciously treat what others might call themes, organiz\-
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 19}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb200\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
ers, or theoretical constructs as metaphors to remind myself that these are imperfect renditions of wha
t happened. Themes, organizers, or theoretical constructs are best understood as having the "as if" status of metaphors. Thinking of these cues as metaphors frees me to the "apparency," the making apparent of multiple connotations that Mar\-tin}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1975)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 sees as the unique power of metaphors. I read the interpre\-
tive metaphors of an ethnography as having these multiple connota\-tions, giving me new possibilities for my interpretation of the study. The words and phrases, and their relationships to each other cue me to evoke a text from the words.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Geertz}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1988),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
while conceiving of his account to be of the writing of ethnographies, can be read as a way to think about
other cues than the interpretive metaphors. He examines the writings of four major figures in anthropology: Levi-Strauss, Evans-Pritchard, Malinowski, and Benedict. As noted above, Geertz sees the essential issue in eth\-
nographic writing as creating a "textual connection of the Being Here and Being There" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 144).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Each of the authors he considers makes sense of the comparison of the home culture of their audience and themselves and the culture they are interpreting. Levi-Strauss's strat\-egy, according to
Geertz, is to overlay a travel guide, an ethnographic report, a philosophical discourse, a reformist tract and a literary work. The result, is a "myth about myths" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 45);}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 that to get close to an\-other culture one must create abstract representations of i
t and our relationship to it. Evans-Pritchard constructs visual representations, demonstrating that his audience's usual frames of social perception are fully adequate even if what is seen by them is a bit odd. Malinowski constructs an "I-witnessing" acco
unt that relies heavily on the confes\-sional establishment of the I that is the witness. Ruth Benedict's strat\-egy is to portray the alien ways as reasonable and, in juxtaposition, our ways as strange.
\par Each of these strategies serve as a cue to the reader.
Geertz evokes an understanding of the essential problems in ethnographic writing. Another reader situated in a different biography and perspective will evoke something quite different. There are of course a range of cues in any work. We can find literary
d
evices such as allegory, irony, farce, and so on to be cues, and I will return to these later in considering how we might write to be read. Cues can be systematic or incidental, but nonetheless are noticed because the reader has an interpretive strategy o
f his or her own.
\par \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2480\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 20}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \tab Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sb180\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Some may see this as a relativistic position, but I do not. The evok\-ing of a text from an ethnographic account may vary by reader, but cues are interpreted by contextualizing them, as best the reader is
able. In this sense, reading is cumulative: All prior reading gives a context to all future reading. Moreover, one's perspective is not simply one's own. It derives from one's biography and community.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 As Fish}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1980)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 argues, there is no way to determine a c
orrect way of reading. The only determination is from which perspective the read\-ing will proceed. One's reading of a work is affected by the interpre\-
tive community of which one is a part. This is to say that reading is not only an interpretive act, it also is fundamentally social. We recog\-
nize cues because they refer to the assumptions, practices, purposes, and goals that exist in the contexts we have experienced, and we make sense of cues out of these contexts. Rosenblatt's}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1978)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 notion of a text as a blueprint also contains some tempering of relativism. A blue\-
print constrains as it guides. The text we construct from a piece of writing delimits our interpretation even as we create the interpreta\-tion.
\par Reading an ethnography is an involved task. It requ
ires us to be active. We take the cues a study provides us and make more of them than is in the written words. We use the words, author's strategies, literary devices, tone, and whatever else we recognize to create a text, a new signification. In doing so
, we construct our perspective even as we express the perspectives available to us in our interpretive com\-munities. We create and reproduce in the same moment.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Reading as a Beginning}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6187465 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Reading an educational ethnography is, for students, often an assign\-
ment, either an end in itself or a means to the end of satisfying the professor. Even those who teach educational ethnography tend to send students out to find the facts in the study, an efferent reading. Once we have the facts, we do not need to read fur
ther or deeper. It is another end to}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid6187465 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 interpretation. Aesthetic reading, or participative read\-
ing, or whatever we wish to call it, is not an ending, but a beginning. It is the beginning of interpretation. Students can practice interpreta\-tion by reading as
well as by researching and writing. Moreover, it is through reading and evoking a text that readers begin to recognize their interpretive communities, the contexts in which their work makes sense. Reading is the beginning of interpretation and the end goa
l of all ethnographic writing. Through it we enlarge and enrich the human discourse.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar
\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 21}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri0\sb260\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Writing}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs22\super\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb140\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Ethnographies, however, are rarely written to be read in the ways I have discussed above. They are usually written as an author's repre\-
sentation of a cultural scene. Writing to be read requires conscious consideration of the construction of the written account. Authors who wish to be read are aware that they are doing more than writing; they are creating. Writi
ng is an act of cultural construction. In writing, we make something that did not exist before. The written text is new and therefore was not available to human discourses in this form. Further, even the characterization of a particular social/cultural sc
e
ne did not exist. As our writing characterizes a scene, the scene keeps on going. Yet we "fix" its meaning in our act of qualitative writing, by describing and interpreting it. Regardless of qualitative researchers' intent to be emic and to generate a tex
t that represents the voices and lives stud\-ied, ultimately a qualitative paper, article, or book is the writer's con\-struction. As Clifford}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1988)
}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 has argued, we "inscribe" our interpreta\-tion of a social scene.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Inscription refers to the notion that the ac
t of writing renders what is learned in doing a qualitative study into a form that others can use in their construction of meaning. We offer our interpretation. The readers consider our offering and make their own interpretations. Their interpretations, h
owever, are not based on the social scene studied but rather on our inscription of it.
\par Our inscription is also a form of translation (Turner,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1980)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
where we examine a scene for its meaning, we translate it into our meaning system, and thus we actually inscribe a translation. The form of such a translation is essentially the construction of analogies (Turner,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1980) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 between two or more "interpretive communities" (Fish,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1980).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 There are two forms of translation to consider when writing: literal and idi\-omatic.
Literal translations involve word-for-word and concept-for-concept transpositions. This form of translation assumes that two scenes share semantic logic and structural logic. Literal translation should be used only when this assumption seems reasonable. S
ince qualitative research often reveals the differences between semantic logic and structural logic even in the same culture, this form of trans\-lation is of limited use in qualitative writing.
\par Qualitative writing is more likely to involve the construction and inscription of an idiomatic translation. Our goal is to translate the meaning of that studied into the meaning system of an audience, con\-
structing an analogy between the meaning systems. We attempt to
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2500\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 22}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \tab Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 maintain the key concepts of those studied as we use the language and concepts of our audience to explain the scene to them. This is what Geertz}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1988)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 means when he says writing is the bridge between "being there" and "writing here."
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi260\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Constructing analogies is another way to think of "making sense" (Taylor,}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1982)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 and revealing the "essence" (Merleau-Ponty,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1962)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 of a social/cultural scene. In this we can accomplish three things (Schlechty }{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 &}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Noblit,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1982).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 We can make }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
the hidden obvious.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 In doing this we usu
ally reveal the taken-for-granted assumptions of a scene. These assumptions are implicit, not explicit, and order lives in ways often hidden to participants. We can make }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
the obvious dubious.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 In so do\-ing, we reveal how what seems to be a normal and straigh
tforward way of understanding lacks veracity when looking at life in greater detail. We can also make }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 the obvious obvious.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
Qualitative research may simply confirm what people assumed all along. The act of doing this has important implications. Such a study confirms a cultural view and may potentially reify it, giving it a status of being unquestionably true.
\par Authors usually inscribe their interpretations, translations, and/or analogies in one of three ways:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 detailed description;}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (2)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
use of theory, and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (3)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
figure/ground reversal. Again each of these is used to construct idiomatic translations.
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Detailed Description.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Geertz}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1973)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 has argued that interpreta\-
tions involve thick description. In cross-cultural studies, this is a way of ensuring emic portraits and revealing the subtleties of cultural dy\-namics and differences. This is also true in qualitative research of our own c
ulture. Detailed descriptions ground the interpretations in the scene studied. Detailed descriptions of our culture also serve to defamiliarize. Attention to detail allows readers to see more deeply into their own actions and beliefs by comparing their wa
ys of knowing with those of others.
\par As Turner}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1980)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
argues, the reader must experience a breakdown in the presumption that the cultural practice described is the cultural practice with which he or she is familiar. Extensive use of transcripts and a focus o
n semantics, language, and actions slow the reader's presumptiveness and prepare him or her for the breakdown Turner discusses. Detailed descriptions of our own culture both ground and defamiliarize the culture scenes, but not alone. Theory can also prove
useful in this regard.
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Use of Theory.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
The use of theory as a part of writing attempts to strategically defamiliarize a scene for the audience while at the same
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 23}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
time grounding it in an interpretive community. Using theory is a strategic choice. Theory is a }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 preference}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 not an }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 obligation,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
and in many ways represents the author's statement of value explicitness. The use of a known theoretical model is a structure for inscribing a scene in a way that is culturally familiar to the audience.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Berger}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 (1981)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 sees interpretation of one's own culture as "transpo\-
sition" of a naturally occurring scene into a recognizable genre of social science. That is to say, any interpretation involves some re\-arranging of that stu
died into such a genre. In choosing a theory, the author is able to reexamine the detailed description and reveal how it could be conceptualized. This once again defamiliarizes the text for the reader, and deeper understandings are generated. On the other
hand, the use of known theoretical models grounds the study for the reader. The reader is reassured that even the defamiliarized will even\-tually be made understandable.
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Figure/Ground Reversal. We}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 also may use figure/ground reversal to create our idiomatic
translation. A figure/ground reversal involves revealing commonplace understanding, which masks a deeper under\-standing of the phenomena under study (McLuhan et al.,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 1980).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par Figure/ground reversals, of course, are powerful examples of how cultural groundin
g and strategic defamiliarization can be accomplished at the same time. We write a scene so that the culturally familiar figure is highlighted. Then, in our interpretation we reveal that the impor\-
tant meanings are contained in the ground around the figure. This invites the audience to consider their own interpretive frames as a problem for understanding another social scene.
\par To me, then, the act of writing is not a technical accomplishment but a highly substantive enterprise of inscribing translations. It is quali\-tative theorizing personified\emdash
an iterative process of making sense and inscribing a translation of our understanding to an audience. In each iteration, we also must make choices about how we }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 represent}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 our translations: The forms of our representations are as powerful as the substance of our interpretive translations.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Making Text}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
By engaging in the writing, we rarely are writing for the mere pleasure of putting pen to paper. We have some intention of producing a text to which our audience can respond. This text is some form of repre\-sentation.
\par I prefer to conceive of the term as }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 re-present.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 In a sense, we are re\-
presenting in some altered form what we have learned. Representing
\par \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2500\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 24}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \tab Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 involves several consider
ations: those whom we study, what we saw and heard, and the meaning that we, as the authors, make of what we experienced in the field. Equally as important is the audience we have chosen to include in this particular translation. I believe that concern fo
r audience pushes us beyond our normal understanding of ethno\-graphic writing.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
Writing as representation, as with translation, requires us to be qualitative researchers of our audience or audiences. We need to know our audiences as well as the study participants in order for our repre\-
sentation to be understandable and meaningful to those audiences. This requires us to understand at least three things about the chosen audience: what they value, how they speak, and perhaps most impor\-tantly what they expect i
n a written text. Knowing these three things is essential if one wants to write to be aesthetically read.
\par Yet how do we know exactly what words to write to portray }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 the right meaning}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
to those readers? Some might be daunted by this slip\-pery question, but it is in fact liberating. Our job is not in any way to provide readers with }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 the complete text}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 but rather to issue them an invitation in the form of an }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 account.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 We invite our audience to inter\-pret our interpretations of the interpretations of those we studied.
\par Writing to be read presumes an audience of meaning makers who read "aesthetically." Clearly, such is not the case for many readers, particularly those in the academic audiences for whom we usually write. Our readers are, many times, those who are the ef
ferent readers, the readers who read for "facts" rather than for the meanings that it is possible to construct from the author's written cues. Given an empha\-
sis on reading for facts or truth, it is efferent reading that makes the writing of qualitative studies problematic. Efferent reading is from a positivist paradigm that acknowledges }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 only one possible}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 text. More\-
over, given the legacy of scientific positivism, we have often constructed our own representations along the lines of this legacy: the introduc\-tion, problem statement, literature review, methods, findings, discus\-
sion, and conclusions. In so doing, we have done ourselves, our par\-ticipants, and our readers a disservice. If we wish readers to read aesthetically, then we must invite their participation in meaning mak\-
ing. One way to accomplish this is to eschew qualitative writing as a form of science, and to embrace ethnography as literature.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Ethnography as Literature}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 I want to be clear about my intentions. Many ethnographers will quail at exchanging science for literature. I, personally, would be happy to
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 25}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
rewrite the concept of science to include literary forms, but the first step is to break the habits of how we think about the concept of sci\-ence. As Geertz}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1973;}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 212)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 has argued, we ethnographers are well advised to reconsider our "vehicles of conception." Schrag}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1981) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
has argued that practice (even ethnographic practice) is most informed by }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 invalid}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
ideas and theories. These, he argues, enable us to fully reconsider the assumptions upon which we base our practices. Here the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 invalid}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 idea I want to explore is that ethnography is best consid\-ered as literature. This, I believe, will allow us to reconsider the ve\-hicles of conception we use in
educational ethnography. The result may be a redefinition of science, an embracing of ethnography as literature, or a rejection of my attempt here. I have, however, just completed reading a draft of Robert Everhart's ethnographic novel and am convinced t
hat thinking of ethnography as literature is one valuable way to write to be read. Literary devices will h}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid8721315 elp ethnogra\-phers create more }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 holistic and symbolic accounts. They are a set of tools that invite in readers the empathic understanding Weber}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1949) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 saw as essential. In this, I propose writing against ethnography itself.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi270\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6187465 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
In what follows, I will discuss seven literary devices: metaphor, irony, tragedy, comedy, satire, farce, and allegory. Each of these devices enables a "sense of things" that literal t
exts are unable to render. This "sense of things" is largely what empirical and literal accounts of so\-cial and cultural scenes miss. Unfortunately, there has been little dis\-cussion of literary devices in qualitative research, something I will}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid6187465\charrsid6187465 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 attempt to redress here.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Metaphor}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8721315 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
In a sense, all qualitative research is metaphoric. On the one hand, metaphors are often interpretively employed in qualitative accounts and on the other hand, the accounts are often metaphors for what was studied. Brown}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1977,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 77)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
has argued: "In the broadest sense, metaphor is seeing something from the viewpoint of something else, which means}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 . . .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 that all knowledge is metaphoric." Metaphors are involved in "the fundamental questions of similarity, identity, and dif\-ference. Thi
s is not only because metaphors are employed in every realm of knowledge; it is also because metaphors are our principal instruments for integrating diverse phenomena and viewpoints with\-out destroying their differences" (Brown}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 1977,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 79).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi200\li40\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin40\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Metaphors are in essence "as if" characterizations. "As if" state\-
ments are essential in constructing the idiomatic translations. Brown }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1977),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 Martin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1975),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 and House}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 (1979)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid6187465 have all considered what
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\marglsxn2070\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid8543185\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar
\tx2480\tx10560\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid11865193 26}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid11865193 \tab Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5795560 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 criteria there are for adequacy of metaphors. Brown}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 (1977)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 argues that there are three basic criteria: economy, cogency, and range. For economy, a metaphor is adequate when it is the most simplistic con\-cept that accounts for the phenomena and has a superi
or "ease of representation and manipulation" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 104).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560
For cogency, an "elegantly efficient integration" without "redundancy, ambiguity, and contradic\-tion" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 106)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 is the criterion. Range refers to the "power of incorpo\-rating other symbolic domains" (p. 105): Adequate metaphors enable the incorporation of multiple symbolic domains. Martin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 (1975)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 sug\-
gests an additional criterion, apparency. He writes: "[T]he ability of language to (seemingly) 'show' us experience rather than 'refer' to it\emdash I shall term 'Apparency'" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 168;}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560
parentheses and emphases in the original). For Martin, an adequate metaphor is one that is successful in "the making apparent of connotations" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560
208).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 A final criterion, credibility, is suggested by House}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 (1979).}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 That is to say, while ad\-equate metaphors are consciously "as if" and involve a transference between a literal sense and an absurd sense of a word or phrase (Brown, }{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 1977),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560
adequate metaphors also must be credible to, and understood by, the audience(s) of the study.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5795560 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 In conside
ring metaphor, it is "apparent" that qualitative writing, when considered as a form of literature, can be informed on many levels. First, we construct our interpretations, wholly, as overarching metaphors, as many qualitative researchers do, to render the
salient themes of the situation in an understandable way to an audience. Sec\-
ond, we can use metaphors, as many qualitative researchers do, to render the salient, discrete themes of the situation in order to reveal the complexity of the situation for an au
dience. Third, we can use emic metaphors: the words and/or concepts of the people studied. This enables readers to make a direct search of the similarities and differences between their culture and that of the others.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \fi220\li0\ri0\sb260\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5795560 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 Irony}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5795560 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 "Irony is a metaphor of opposite
s, a seeing of something from the viewpoint of its antithesis" (Brown,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 1977,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 172).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560
Brown goes on to argue that irony, to be fully developed, depends on the interaction of incongruity and inevitability. Irony requires that an incongruity of opposites, th
at in itself is unstable, be developed. This must be coupled with an unexpected result that is established as inevitable.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5795560 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560
Irony then, gives a drama to qualitative accounts: "a man sayth one and gyveth to understande the contraye" (Sedgewick,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 1935,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 5). }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid5795560\charrsid5795560 I
rony includes "in a general sense the shocks and clashes between one
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 27}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
aspect and another of some double situation, the whole grasped by the spectator, only part known to some at least of the personages in the scene" (Moulton,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1903,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 pp.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 209-210).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 In short, irony, to be effec\-
tive, must not only establish an incongruity of instable opposites and the inevitability of an expected result, but must also invite the audi\-ence on a dramatic journey, revealing the holism of the incon
gruity and anticipating the inevitable and unexpected.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Irony can serve qualitative writers in at least two ways (Brown,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1977, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 pp.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 172-173).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
It is a device that we can use to promote a critical self-awareness on the part of the audience: It admonishes them
to look deeper and to search for the taken-for-granteds. In doing so, it also creates an audience for the holistic and comparative accounts of quali\-
tative researchers. Irony is an ideal literary device to use to represent scenes where good intentions unintendedly create negative conse\-
quences. It also serves to foster critical self-awareness on the part of ethnographers who by understanding the irony of methodological fe\-tishism may create an ethnography worthy of being read.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Tragedy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Lucas}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 (1927,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 58)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 argues that "tragedy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 ...}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
is a representation of human unhappiness which pleases us notwithstanding, by the truth with which it is seen and the skill with which it is communicated." Like irony, tragedy involves aspects of the incongruity of opposites and i
nevitability. The opposites are in the form of a "mortal will engaged in an unequal struggle with destiny" (Butcher,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1951,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 pp.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 311-312). }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
The inevitability is that "the opposite is grafted into the action from the very beginning" (Mandel,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1961,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 24).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi200\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 McCollum}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 (1957,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 pp.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 15-16)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
argues that there are two "validity" tests of a particular tragedy: "(a) Is the view or attitude believable in its main outlines? (b) Does it permit true action without underestimat\-ing the hindrances in the way of human activity and
accomplishment?" Mandel provides the following characterization of tragedy:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li200\ri200\sb160\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin200\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
A protagonist who commands our earnest good will is impelled in a given world by a purpose, or undertakes an action, of certain seriousness and mag\-nitude; and by that very purpos
e or action, subject to that same given world, necessarily and inevitably meets with grave spiritual or physical suffering}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 (1961, }{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 20).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi200\li0\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5795560 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
While tragedies do rely on human agency and moral action, they also demonstrate an overpowering determinism. Thus, tragedy may well be the literary device of choice to represent how forces cause the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid11865193
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2480\tx10600\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid8936132
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13834583 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid13834583
\page }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid13834583\charrsid13834583 28\tab \tab \tab Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid13834583
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid13834583\charrsid13834583
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13834583 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 demise of moral agents and actions. The message of a tragedy is pow\-
erful. It reinforces idealistic values while portraying their inevitable demise to more powerful social forces. This would be an ideal literary device to use to represent the power of educational institutions over attempts to reform them.
\par
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s16\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13834583 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 Comedy
\par }\pard \ltrpar\s16\qj \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13834583 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 Comedy is
very similar to tragedy in form but rather different in its meaning. Tragedy, in portraying the powerful forces, affirms this power. Comedy, on the other hand, depends on "an insufficient compromise under }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\i\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 any}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 given conditions" (Feibleman,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185
1970,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 176;}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 emphasis in original). Comedy is one kind of exemplification of the proposition that "nothing actual is wholly logical" (Feibleman,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 1970,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185
178).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 Those who study literature are quick to point out that it is incorrect to equate laughter with comedy (Grawe,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 1983).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185
Comedy, as a genre, reveals the ludicrous or ridiculous and, in some or many instances, laughter on the part of the audience will result. As Grawe explains:
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li270\ri200\sb180\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin200\lin270\itap0\pararsid13834583 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 Laughter in comedy serves as a highlighting device. If properly handled, laugh\-ter creates
memorable high points in the redundant pattern of the play, often the most memorable aspects of that patterning. But such technical impor\-
tance does not make laughter fundamentally important to either the formal or the emotional definition of tragedy (Grawe,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 1983,}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 65).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13834583 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 Comedy gives us hope for tomorrow. In tragedy, the hero or hero\-
ine has character traits that are as deterministic as the forces of des\-tiny. The steadfastness of these traits leads to the downfall. In com\-edy, the hero or heroine is more
adaptable, flaws are modified by experience, and creation of a harmonious ending occurs. Grawe}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 (1983) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 explains:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li270\ri0\sb140\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin0\lin270\itap0\pararsid13834583 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185
[C]omedy as seen from a formal perspective is the representation of life patterned to demonstrate or to assert a faith in human survival, often
including or emphasizing how that survival is possible or under what conditions that survival takes place (p. 17).
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb336\sl281\slmult1\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\lisb140\pararsid8543185 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid8543185\charrsid8543185 He goes on to argue a few key principles of comedy:
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s16\qj \li274\ri0\sb336\sl281\slmult1\nowidctlpar\abslock1\faauto\rin0\lin274\itap0\lisb140\pararsid8543185 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 First, comedy is a representation of life, not the representation of action}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid8543185\charrsid8543185 (p. 17).
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 Second, comedy's assertion is a faith, not a fact (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 18). }{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 [Third,] comedy depends upon a certain kind of patterning}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 . . .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 any con\-scious repetition of material in juxtaposition with intervening, contrastive ma\-terial (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185
18}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid8543185\charrsid8543185 )}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs22\insrsid13834583\charrsid8543185
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2480\tx10600\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11865193 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 29}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
It is in this patterning that the assertion of faith is revealed. The ludi\-crous or ridiculous juxtaposition serves to underscore the faith in hu\-man survival.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
Comedy, then, may enable qualitative writers to better represent situations involving insufficient compromises, unsatisfactory trade-offs, and unresolvable dilemmas. Yet it is also the story of human agency, the indeterminacy of forces, and the faith in t
h
e perseverance of people over the forces. Comedy would be an ideal form for telling many of our stories of educators trying to reform the organizations or systems in which they work, and failing to achieve that reform, while revealing the valiant, moral c
ommitments of teachers that persist regardless of the seeming inevitability of the failure of educational reform.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Satire}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
Worchester}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 (1940)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 writes of satire:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li160\ri200\sb180\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin160\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
It has an aim, a preconceived purpose: to instill a given set of emotions or opinions into its reader. To succeed, it must practice the art of persuasion and become proficient with the tools of that art (pp.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 8-9).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb160\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 He goes on to argue that there are two ste
ps in forming a satire. First, the author establishes a criticism of human (or divine) conduct. Sec\-ond, the author "contrives ways of making his readers comprehend and remember that criticism and adopt it as their own" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 13).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 The satirist is a "guardian
of ideas," ever "conscious of the differences between what things are and what they ought to be" (Pollard,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1970, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 3).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
Yet the satirist, in many ways, depends on false virtue and is "able to exploit more fully the differences between appearance and reality and especially to expose hypocrisy" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 3).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Satire "deflates" but "does not exalt" (p. 7): "Protest becomes art" (Jack,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1954,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 17). }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Successful satire has dual effects: it angers the victims and amuses the audiences.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Satire involves a characterization of people as having only "limited independence" (Pollard,}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1970,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 54).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
The character serves only to illustrate the author's satiric position, which is established early in the work. Further, satire is often accomplished by an allusion or a pun in the form of an innuendo (Pollard,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1970).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
In the end, however, the satirist makes an appeal "to common sense and reason" by using the tools of comedy to expose a reality that is so different from appear\-ances (Worchester,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1940,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 36).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 The imagery is always denigra
tory, but the author escapes being seen as merely malicious by efforts to "allege the magnitude of the need for satire and the satirist's role as a
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar
\s15\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posnegx-20\posy20\absh140\absw780\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 30}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard \ltrpar\s15\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posx2480\posy0\absh160\absw1760\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction
\par }\pard \ltrpar\s15\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phmrg\posx10660\posy100\absh140\absw400\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid9505540\charrsid5903944 Into}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phpg\posx2061\posy420\absh10685\absw7867\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2053431 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 public benefactor" and by moving the audience "from laughter through ridicule, contempt and anger to hate" (Worchester,}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 1940,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 pp.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 73-74).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phpg\posx2061\posy420\absh10685\absw7867\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2053431 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 Many would argue that qualitati
ve research should reveal the myths, the taken-for-granteds, and I would argue, satire is a means to do this. Yet satire may be too personal in revealing a character. Thus, our norms of anonymity and value expression may make satire appear to be inappropr
iate. It is also true that satire as a literary device may well be the best way to reveal hypocrisy when we find it and thus serve as a "regulating force in society" (Worchester,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 1940,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 10).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 This may require qualitative researchers to be truly value-explicit and to "go na\-
tive," choosing a side to stand with. For satire to be used effectively, we must find justification to lampoon those who say one thing and do another such as when governments pass legislation requiring action but decline to fund the action required.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phpg\posx2061\posy420\absh10685\absw7867\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8721315 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 Farce}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phpg\posx2061\posy420\absh10685\absw7867\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8721315 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 Farce as a literary device reflects opposition to the order of things (Davis,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 1978).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 Bernel}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 (1982,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 p.}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 14)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 argues that farce is a "negating force." It does not create order a
new, but rather leaves disorder in place. Shaw}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 (1932)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431
despised farce for its lack of social conscience. Indeed, some governments have censored farce. Farce as opposition, however, also stands for something. It is a celebration of foolery: In the face of am
biguities and misunderstandings, aspirations are a joke. Some versions of postmodernity are termed "ludic" for precisely this reason (Kinchloe}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 &}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 McLaren,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 1994).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phpg\posx2061\posy420\absh10685\absw7867\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2053431 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 Farce provokes laughter because it reveals a fundamental human predicament. Davis}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 (1978)}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 writes:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li200\ri200\sb140\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phpg\posx2061\posy420\absh10685\absw7867\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin200\lin200\itap0\pararsid8721315 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 Their fun is derived from the way in which the normal train of domestic events is transformed into a whirlwind of confusions and mistaken identities (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 20).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sb120\nowidctlpar\pvpara\phpg\posx2061\posy420\absh10685\absw7867\abslock1\dxfrtext10080\dfrmtxtx10080\dfrmtxty40\nowrap\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2053431 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 A farce requires the characterizations of "types" of people whom the actors represent by masking themselves in various ways. This mimicry takes place in a physically active and usually imaginative setting por\-
traying the "eternal comic conflict between forces of conventional au\-thority and the forces of rebellion" (Davis,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 1978,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 24).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431
Yet it stops short of open rebellion and/or satire by being indulgent of the foibles of humans.
\par Horace Miner's account}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 (1981)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431
of the "body ritual among the Nacirema" is clearly an example of ethnographic farce. He gives us an autobiographical account of Americans (Nacirema is American spelled backwards), "a magic ridden people" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 30),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid2053431\charrsid2053431 whose "fundamental be-
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14710110 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 31}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16460491 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 lief}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 . . .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591
appears to be that the human body is ugly and that its natu\-ral tendency is to debility and disease" (p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 26).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 The account itself is of an anthropologist looking at a primitive people\emdash their rituals and myths, their temples and their medicine men\emdash
and describing how they are all implicated in this fundamental belief. Miner is the indulgent observer. The mistaken identity in Miner's farcical account is our own culture. Our conventional beliefs are revealed in their ridiculousness. The mim\-
icry is a reminder not to take ourselves, our research, or our profes\-sional practices too seriously.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14710110 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 Farce may be consistent with the qualitative researcher's understand\-
ing of the interaction between agency and structure. Fir}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid14710110\charrsid13595591 st, humans struggle to create an identity in the f}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 ace}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid14710110\charrsid13595591 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 o}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid14710110\charrsid13595591 f}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 strong social and cultural forces. Second, understanding this struggle and understanding that agency an
d structure are inseparable (Giddens,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 1979),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591
each being implicated in the other, the qualitative researcher's mood is often in\-dulgent. We may see elements of educ}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid14710110\charrsid13595591 ation as farcical, but ethnogra}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 phers seem reluctant to portray that. In this, ethnographers reveal their commitments to order and/or resistance over ludic understand\-ings of our social world.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb320\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16460491 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 Allegory}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16460491 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 Allegory is commonly referred to as an "extended metaphor" in that it involves an "as if" interpretation. However, allegory in itself is a form that originated in the expression of myths (McQueen,}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 1970).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591
Allegory is distinguished from metaphor by the fact that the reader is placed in the position of being the producer of meaning (Quilligan,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 1979)}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 and that language and symbolism are chosen to cue the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid14710110\charrsid13595591 meanings the read\-ers produce (Cliff}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 ord, T974). The images, 'language, and sym}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid14710110\charrsid13595591 b}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 ols are purposively separated from their contexts and new meanings con\-noted. "The worlds of allegory are only half-familiar and they are rarely safe" (Clifford,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 1974,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 p.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 3).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591
Allegories are also essentially concerned with revealing the interaction of forces so that often the allegory takes the form of a purney, quest, or pursuit.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li270\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin270\itap0\pararsid16460491 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 Clifford}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 (1974)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 summarizes the aims of the allegorist:
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li520\ri0\sb200\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin520\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 First, he is concerned with abstractions, with universals, which by their lin\-
guistic nature must be comprehensible in so diverse a range of context as almost to give objective status. Second, he is concerned to demonstrate these in terms ac
cessible to any number of interested readers: the truth may be difficult to access but it cannot be inaccessible. Finally, since he is generally interested in a complicated process, he needs an immense range of material to offer the expressive terms for t
he naked abstraction (pp.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591 122-123).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs23 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs23\insrsid11865193\charrsid13595591
\par \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2500\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 32}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \tab Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sb180\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 In a sense, all qualitative interpretation is allegorical. Our interpre\-tation of a culture invites readers to find the universal lessons of a particular, yet "strange," culture.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Formal
allegories are rare in qualitative research, yet allegory is an appropriate literary device when the concern is to express the interac\-
tion of forces in some social or cultural process. This requires an abstraction. But, qualitative research, like allegory, has abstraction embedded in "thick description" (Geertz,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 1973).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 Studies of organiza\-
tional change and program implementation seem to be appropriate for allegory. Moreover, allegory may be particularly useful when the purpose of the qualitative research i
s to have the participants reflect on their condition, as in many evaluation situations. I have used alle\-
gory in the form of storytelling to people whose revered program lost funding for political reasons. The story as an allegory helped them understand t
heir experience in a different way. It is also useful for educational purposes in general, providing direction as to what is to be learned while giving the lesson a concrete manifestation.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\sb400\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 The Ends of Writing}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110 I have attempted to portray an image of qualitative writing quite differ\-
ent from the scientific and technical writing typical of ethnography and educational research in general. The scientific image of writing treats what should be discussed and how as relatively unproblematic. Qualitative writing, ho
wever, is problematic. Like our data collection methods, our writing must be strategic and purposive. Good writing is that which speaks to the audience and allows them to engage the text and create their own translations, analogies, and interpretations. E
thnographers should make strategic decisions about how we write based on this goal. Our writing is purposive in that what we wish readers to engage is a text that represents those and that being writ\-
ten about. We must both characterize the situation fully and represent it in a manner that gives the audience the opportunity and wish to engage it.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid14710110
Our decisions about which literary devices to use and when these should be used are dependent on the nature of the scene we studied, the audience for whom we wish t
o write, and the substance of the translation necessary to link the two. Literary devices can be em\-ployed in many different types of qualitative tales. They are the es\-
sence of qualitative writing and what makes it both hard work and an act of cultural construction.
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qr \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 33}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sb180\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 However, we must remember that the literary devices I have dis\-cussed are also cultural constructions. They have a long history in Western cultures and are a
ppropriate for Western audiences. Other cultures have other devices that help with aesthetic reading. Again, the point is to know your audience and write appropriately for that audience. This means the ethnographer who writes of cultures quite different f
rom the audience for the writing is always charged with cre\-
ating an analogy, a translation, of the culture of those studied to the culture of the audience. This is why ethnography is always partial and why we are always writing against culture, against ourselves, and ulti\-mately against ethnography itself.
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri0\sb280\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\b\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 This Book}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb100\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 I have tried to collect in this volume two sets of my work: essays on the ethnographic endeavor in education and a set of ethnographies that concern education and race. The chapters that follow will dem\-
onstrate two of my beliefs. First, each piece emerges from the particu\-larities of time, place and relationship. I will discuss each chapter below in these terms. Second, this collection should also dispel the all-too-common belief that scholarshi
p is the result of some singular genius'. This is not my story. My writing is a collective project. Those who teach me}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 \emdash }{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 teachers, students, parents, administrators, and oth\-ers\emdash are the geniuses. My writing is best seen as testimony to their genius. Further,
I rarely do studies, think, or write alone. My coau\-thors, in the words of one of my former students and coauthor, "make me look good." Indeed, what saddens me most is that I must leave out some of those who lent me their genius.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi200\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 PART}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 1}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 includes five chapters of my thinking about ethnography in education. Chapter}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 1}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385
is a product of the paradigm wars over research on ethnography. I wrote it after I had moved from a sociology depart\-ment to a school of education and I found myself continuously en\-gaged in exp
licating my view of qualitative research to students and faculty who were interested but had little background in this way of thinking. I quote Mannheim in the piece, but a close reader will find that the chapter itself is a play on his work. Chapter}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 2}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 I w
rote much later and with a good friend. John Engel is a qualitative researcher in medical education, a field I dabbled in for a number of years. He and I wanted to write against the increasing focus on qualitative technique, and about reclaiming holism an
d seeing ethnography as a humanistic and moral enterprise. Chapter}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 3}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385
was written with Deborah Eaker. She
\par \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\sbknone\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\tx2500\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid15096385
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 34}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \tab Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb180\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 is certainly at the top of the list of those "who make me look good." She and I worked together a number of years an
d wrote many pieces together. In this piece, we take seriously the adage that all knowledge is political. We consider a range of evaluation research methods, in\-cluding ethnography, and describe the political strategy that each rep\-
resents. I am second author on Chapter}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 4.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385
The first author, Dwight Rogers, is a colleague who dragged me into the world of action re\-search and, in doing so, taught me that the usual ways of doing eth\-nography were too circumscribed. Phyllis Ferrell, the third author, demonstrate
d to me that a powerful use of an ethnographic approach is by people who want to better understand their own practice. The final chapter in Part}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 1}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 involves thinking about how to synthesize mul\-tiple qualitative studies. I wrote this with Dwight Hare, a fri
end who helped me become both a professor of education and a better teacher of qualitative methods.
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi220\li0\ri0\sl280\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 PART}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 2}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 includes a set of ethnographic studies concerned with edu\-cation and race. Chapters}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 6, 7,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 8}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 are from my first ethnography, funded by Ray Rist, th
en at the National Institute of Education. They are written with Thomas Collins, an anthropologist, who in many ways taught me this craft. The student, faculty, and parents of the school we studied as it was desegregating taught both of us more than we we
re ready to learn. Chapters}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 6}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 7}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385
taken together are meant to show both that white is as much a racial construct as black and how whites maintain race advantage over African Americans. Chapter}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 8 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 focuses on the politics of race and leadership in a highly p
olitical context. In terms of literary devices, this chapter is a double tragedy even though it is written as a realist ethnography. I am second author on Chapter}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 9.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 The chapter is an earlier analysis of the data that re\-sulted in the book Van Dempsey and I wrote. }{
\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 The Social Construc\-tion of Virtue}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 (Noblit}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 &}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 Dempsey,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 1996).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385
This chapter and the book emerged from a four-year study by a large team of people that wrote the ethnohistory of two elementary schools joined by school desegre\-gation. In this chapter,
Van and I are writing a narrative and breaking from a more realistic ethnography. Again, it is a tragedy. Chapter}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385 10 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs22
\ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs22\insrsid11865193\charrsid15096385
I believe is my best article to date. It is an example of self-reflective ethnography. Here I am subjected to the same lens that I turn on the teacher. The story incorporates elements of both irony and comedy, but it is a comedy that makes me cry every ti
me I read it.
\par Please remember I do not want you to read the following efferently, for the facts. Rather, I hope you will read it aesthetically, making your meaning as you go.
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 \sect }\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\colsx60\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid5512395\sftnbj \pard\plain \ltrpar\s15\qc \li0\ri200\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin200\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Note
\par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\qj \fi-300\li280\ri0\sb660\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin280\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs18\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs18\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 1}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193\charrsid5903944 Deborah Eaker is coauthor of an earlier draft of this section of the introduction.}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid11865193
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid1659606
\par
\par
\par
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-300\li280\ri0\sb660\sl260\slmult1\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin280\itap0\pararsid1659606 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid1659606
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1659606 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid1659606\charrsid1659606 ADDIN EN.REFLIST }}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid1659606\charrsid1659606 Noblit, G. W. (1999). }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\ul\insrsid1659606\charrsid1659606 Particularities: Colle}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\ul\insrsid1659606 cted}{\rtlch\fcs1
\af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\ul\insrsid1659606\charrsid1659606 Essays on Ethnography and Education}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \f1\fs24\insrsid1659606\charrsid1659606 , Peter Lang Publishers.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af1\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0
\f1\fs24\insrsid1659606\charrsid5903944
\par }}